Semiconductor Process Control Equipment Market By Equipment Type (Metrology Equipment, Inspection Equipment, Process Control Software & Analytics, Defect Review Systems); By Technology Node (≤5nm Node, 7nm–14nm Node, ≥16nm Node); By Application (Front-End Manufacturing, Back-End Manufacturing, R&D and Process Development); By End User (Foundries, Integrated Device Manufacturers, OSAT Providers, Research Institutes); By Geography, Segment Revenue Estimation, Forecast, 2026–2032

Introduction And Strategic Context

The Global Semiconductor Process Control Equipment Market is expected to expand at a CAGR of 8.4%, rising from USD 12.6 billion in 2025 to USD 22.1 billion by 2032, according to Strategic Market Research.

 

Process control equipment sits at the core of modern semiconductor manufacturing. These systems monitor, measure, and fine-tune fabrication processes across wafer production lines. In simple terms, they ensure that chips coming off advanced nodes actually meet design specifications. Without them, yield drops fast—and in this industry, yield is everything.

 

What’s changed over the past few years?

• Complexity. Moving into sub-5nm and even 3nm nodes has pushed defect tolerance to near-zero. Even minor variations in deposition, etching, or lithography can ruin an entire batch. That’s where process control tools—inspection systems, metrology equipment, and defect review platforms—become non-negotiable.

• Between 2026 and 2032, this market becomes more strategic, not just operational. Foundries and integrated device manufacturers (IDMs) are no longer treating process control as a support function. It’s now a primary investment category. Why? Because improving yield by even 1–2% at advanced nodes can translate into millions in recovered revenue.

 

Several macro forces are shaping demand:

• Advanced node scaling (3nm and below) is increasing the need for high-resolution inspection and precision metrology.

• AI and high-performance computing (HPC) are driving demand for complex chip architectures, requiring tighter process control loops.

• Heterogeneous integration and chiplet designs are adding new inspection challenges across packaging and interconnect layers.

• Geopolitical supply chain shifts are pushing countries to invest in domestic semiconductor fabrication, indirectly boosting equipment demand.

Technology evolution is equally important. Traditional optical inspection is reaching its physical limits. As a result, e-beam inspection, hybrid metrology, and AI-driven defect classification are gaining traction. These tools don’t just detect defects—they predict them.

 

From a stakeholder perspective, the ecosystem is tightly interconnected:

• Equipment manufacturers are pushing innovation in inspection sensitivity and throughput.

• Foundries and IDMs are increasing capital expenditure on yield optimization.

• EDA and AI software providers are integrating analytics into process control workflows.

• Governments are supporting fab expansions through subsidies and policy frameworks.

• Investors see process control as a high-margin, resilient segment within the semiconductor value chain.

 

There’s also a subtle shift happening. 
Process control is moving closer to real-time decision-making. Instead of post-process inspection, fabs are aiming for inline, predictive control systems that adjust parameters dynamically. This may reduce waste and accelerate production cycles.

 

Overall, the market is transitioning from a quality assurance function to a yield engineering backbone. As fabs become more complex and capital-intensive, process control equipment will play a defining role in determining profitability, scalability, and technological leadership.

 

Market Segmentation And Forecast Scope

The Semiconductor Process Control Equipment Market is structured around how semiconductor fabrication processes are monitored, controlled, and optimized across increasingly advanced manufacturing nodes. Segmentation reflects both the technical architecture of fabs and the operational need to improve yield, reduce defects, and enhance process stability.

Below is the structured segmentation and forecast scope overview:

By Equipment Type

• Metrology Equipment

  • Critical dimension (CD) metrology systems

  • Film thickness measurement tools

  • Overlay metrology systems

  • Used extensively for process validation and dimensional accuracy at advanced nodes

• Inspection Equipment

  • Optical inspection systems

  • Electron beam (e-beam) inspection systems

  • Wafer defect inspection tools

  • Dominates revenue share due to high defect detection demand in advanced nodes (estimated ~38% share in 2025)

• Process Control Software & Analytics

  • AI-based yield management platforms

  • Real-time process monitoring systems

  • Increasingly integrated with fab automation ecosystems

• Defect Review Systems

  • High-resolution imaging and classification tools

  • Used for root-cause analysis and yield optimization

 

By Technology Node

• ≤5nm Node

  • Highest precision requirement segment

  • Strongest adoption of advanced inspection and AI-based metrology tools

• 7nm–14nm Node

  • Mature but still high-volume manufacturing segment

  • Balanced demand for cost-efficient inspection systems

• ≥16nm Node

  • Legacy nodes with stable but slower growth

  • Primarily driven by automotive, industrial, and IoT chips

Advanced nodes (≤5nm) are expected to be the fastest-growing segment due to extreme defect sensitivity and EUV lithography adoption.

 

By Application

• Front-End Manufacturing

  • Wafer fabrication monitoring

  • Lithography alignment and deposition control

  • Largest revenue contributor (estimated ~55% share in 2025)

• Back-End Manufacturing

  • Packaging inspection

  • Advanced chiplet and 3D IC integration monitoring

  • Rapidly growing due to heterogeneous integration trends

• R&D and Process Development

  • Used in pilot fabs and semiconductor research labs

  • Supports next-generation node development and material testing

 

By End User

• Foundries

  • TSMC-style high-volume manufacturing environments

  • Highest adoption of real-time process control systems

• Integrated Device Manufacturers (IDMs)

  • Intel, Samsung-type ecosystems

  • Strong demand for in-house yield optimization tools

• OSAT Providers (Outsourced Semiconductor Assembly and Test)

  • Focus on back-end inspection and packaging quality control

  • Growing relevance due to chiplet -based architectures

• Research & Academic Institutes

  • Limited but high-value adoption for advanced process experimentation

 

By Region

• North America

  • Strong R&D ecosystem and AI-driven process control adoption

  • Major semiconductor equipment innovation hub

• Europe

  • Focus on automotive semiconductors and industrial chip manufacturing

  • Moderate but stable demand growth

• Asia Pacific

  • Dominant regional market with largest share (estimated ~62% in 2025 )

  • Driven by fabs in Taiwan, South Korea, China, and Japan

  • Fastest expansion in new fab construction

• Rest of the World ( RoW)

  • Emerging investments in Middle East semiconductor initiatives

  • Early-stage but strategically important long-term growth region

 

Forecast Scope Overview (2026–2032)

• Market evaluated across equipment, software, and integrated process control ecosystems

• Revenue tracked in USD Billion (2025–2032)

• Growth driven by:

  • Sub-5nm manufacturing expansion

  • Rising fab complexity and yield sensitivity

  • AI-enabled real-time process optimization

  • Increased global semiconductor localization strategies

• Strongest CAGR contribution expected from:

  • Inspection Equipment

  • AI-based Process Control Software

  • Advanced Node (≤5nm) Manufacturing Segment

Overall, the segmentation highlights a clear shift: from standalone inspection tools to fully integrated, AI-driven process control ecosystems embedded directly into semiconductor fabs.

 

Market Trends And Innovation Landscape

The Semiconductor Process Control Equipment Market is undergoing a structural transformation driven by the increasing complexity of chip manufacturing, tighter defect tolerances, and the shift toward AI-enabled fabrication ecosystems. Between 2026 and 2032, innovation is no longer incremental—it is becoming foundational to how semiconductor fabs operate, scale, and compete.

At the center of this transformation is the transition from traditional post-process inspection to real-time, predictive process control systems. Instead of identifying defects after fabrication, modern fabs are increasingly investing in systems that detect variations during production and adjust parameters dynamically. This shift is reshaping equipment design, software integration, and fab architecture.

AI-Driven Process Control Becomes Core Infrastructure

Artificial intelligence is no longer an auxiliary feature in semiconductor manufacturing—it is becoming embedded within process control systems themselves.

• AI-based defect classification is significantly improving detection accuracy in high-density wafer patterns

• Machine learning models are being trained on historical fab data to predict yield drift before it occurs

• Automated decision systems are reducing reliance on manual engineering intervention

The real shift here is autonomy. Process control equipment is evolving from measurement tools into self-correcting systems that continuously optimize production outcomes.

By 2032, AI-integrated inspection systems are expected to be standard in leading-edge fabs, particularly in Asia and North America.

 

Rise of Hybrid Metrology Systems

Traditional single-method metrology tools are reaching physical and computational limits at sub-5nm nodes. This is accelerating adoption of hybrid metrology platforms, which combine multiple measurement techniques such as:

• Optical + e-beam inspection fusion

• Scatterometry combined with imaging analytics

• Cross-layer measurement correlation systems

These hybrid systems improve accuracy while reducing measurement uncertainty in ultra-dense chip architectures.

This trend reflects a broader industry realization: no single measurement technique is sufficient for next-generation semiconductor nodes.

 

E-Beam and High-Resolution Inspection Expansion

Electron beam inspection systems are gaining strong momentum due to their ability to detect nanoscale defects that optical systems cannot resolve.

Key drivers include:

• EUV lithography adoption at advanced nodes

• Increased sensitivity requirements in logic and memory chips

• Growing complexity in multi-patterning processes

However, throughput limitations remain a challenge. As a result, manufacturers are investing in multi-beam e-beam architectures to improve inspection speed without compromising resolution.

 

Shift Toward Inline and Real-Time Monitoring

One of the most important structural changes is the move toward inline process control systems embedded directly within fabrication lines.

• Inline metrology reduces latency between defect detection and correction

• Real-time monitoring improves yield consistency across high-volume fabs

• Integration with fab automation systems enables closed-loop manufacturing

This trend is redefining fab architecture itself—moving from segmented production steps to continuous feedback-driven manufacturing.

 

Advanced Packaging and 3D Integration Driving New Demand

The rise of heterogeneous integration and chiplet -based architectures is expanding the scope of process control equipment beyond traditional wafer fabrication.

Key implications include:

• Need for inspection at interconnect and packaging levels

• Increased demand for 3D IC alignment metrology

• Growth in bump inspection and bonding defect detection systems

This is particularly important for AI chips, HPC processors, and advanced mobile SoCs, where multi-die integration is becoming standard.

 

Data-Centric Fab Ecosystems and Digital Twins

Semiconductor manufacturing is increasingly becoming data-driven. Process control equipment is now feeding into digital twin models of fabs, enabling simulation and predictive optimization.

• Real-time fab data is used to simulate yield outcomes

• Equipment behavior is modeled digitally to identify inefficiencies

• Predictive maintenance reduces downtime and improves tool utilization

Digital twin adoption is expected to become a defining feature of next-generation fabs , especially in leading semiconductor hubs.

 

Sustainability and Yield Efficiency Focus

Sustainability is also influencing innovation direction. Process control equipment plays a direct role in reducing:

• Wafer scrap rates

• Energy-intensive reprocessing cycles

• Material waste in lithography and deposition stages

As fabs scale globally, even marginal improvements in yield efficiency translate into significant environmental and financial benefits.

 

Competitive Innovation Dynamics

Innovation is concentrated among leading semiconductor equipment manufacturers that are investing heavily in:

• AI-enhanced inspection platforms

• Multi-modal metrology integration

• High-speed defect classification systems

• Software-defined process control ecosystems

The competitive edge is shifting from hardware precision alone to hardware-software co-optimization platforms.

Overall, the innovation landscape is moving toward intelligent, autonomous, and deeply integrated process control systems. The future of semiconductor manufacturing will be defined not just by how chips are made, but by how effectively every microscopic variation is detected, interpreted, and corrected in real time.

 

Competitive Intelligence And Benchmarking

The Semiconductor Process Control Equipment Market is highly consolidated, with a small group of global players controlling a significant share of advanced inspection, metrology, and defect review technologies. However, competition is intensifying as chip geometries shrink, defect tolerances tighten, and AI-driven process optimization becomes a core requirement for fabs.

Unlike traditional equipment markets, competition here is not purely based on hardware performance. It now spans across resolution capability, throughput efficiency, software intelligence, and ecosystem integration with fab automation systems. The strategic battleground has shifted toward yield optimization platforms rather than standalone inspection tools.

KLA Corporation

KLA Corporation remains the undisputed leader in process control and yield management solutions.

• Strong dominance in wafer inspection, metrology, and defect analysis systems

• Deep integration across leading foundries and memory manufacturers

• Advanced AI-enabled defect classification and process feedback systems

KLA’s competitive advantage lies in its closed-loop yield learning ecosystem, where inspection data directly influences production adjustments in real time.

The company is particularly strong in sub-5nm and EUV-driven manufacturing environments, where defect detection sensitivity is critical.

 

Applied Materials

Applied Materials plays a dual role as both a semiconductor equipment supplier and process control innovator.

• Strong portfolio in metrology integrated with deposition and etch systems

• Focus on end-to-end process optimization rather than standalone inspection

• Increasing investment in AI-driven process intelligence platforms

Applied Materials benefits from its ability to integrate process control functions directly into fabrication tools, reducing system fragmentation in fabs.

Its strategy is centered on “process convergence”—linking manufacturing steps with real-time monitoring and correction.

 

ASML

ASML is primarily known for lithography systems but is increasingly influencing process control indirectly.

• Extreme precision requirements in EUV lithography drive metrology demand

• Strong ecosystem integration with inspection and alignment tool providers

• Growing role in enabling process stability at atomic-scale manufacturing levels

ASML does not dominate inspection directly, but its lithography complexity forces fabs to invest heavily in advanced process control ecosystems compatible with EUV nodes.

 

Hitachi High-Tech

Hitachi High-Tech is a key player in electron beam inspection and high-resolution metrology systems.

• Strong presence in e-beam inspection for advanced node defect detection

• Focus on ultra-high-resolution imaging systems for logic and memory chips

• Expanding role in AI-based defect recognition technologies

The company is particularly competitive in scenarios where optical inspection reaches its physical limits.

 

Tokyo Electron (TEL)

Tokyo Electron (TEL) is strategically positioned in process integration and equipment ecosystem development.

• Strong presence in etch, deposition, and related process control integration

• Increasing investment in smart manufacturing and data-driven process optimization

• Collaborations with foundries for yield enhancement initiatives

TEL’s competitive advantage lies in its ability to align process control with core wafer fabrication steps.

 

Onto Innovation

Onto Innovation is an emerging specialist in advanced metrology and inspection systems.

• Strong focus on packaging inspection and advanced 3D integration metrology

• Growth driven by chiplet architecture and advanced packaging demand

• Expanding AI-based analytics for defect detection and classification

Onto Innovation is gaining relevance as advanced packaging becomes a critical extension of semiconductor scaling.

 

Nanometrics (now part of KLA ecosystem influence)

Historically known for metrology solutions, Nanometrics ’ technologies continue to influence advanced process control systems through KLA’s broader portfolio integration.

 

Competitive Benchmarking Insights

Across the competitive landscape, several structural trends are evident:

• Consolidation of market leadership around a few dominant players (KLA, Applied Materials)

• Rising importance of software and AI integration, not just hardware precision

• Shift toward ecosystem-based competition, where equipment must integrate seamlessly into fab-wide data systems

• Increasing specialization in e-beam inspection, advanced packaging metrology, and EUV-compatible process control tools

 

Strategic Positioning Outlook

• KLA Corporation leads in full-spectrum yield management and defect inspection dominance

• Applied Materials leads in integrated process control and equipment convergence strategies

• Hitachi High-Tech and Onto Innovation are gaining traction in niche high-resolution and packaging segments

• ASML indirectly shapes demand, driving complexity that fuels inspection innovation

 

The competitive future is increasingly defined by data intelligence rather than mechanical precision alone.

 

Over the forecast period, companies that successfully combine hardware precision + AI analytics + fab-wide integration capability are expected to outperform traditional equipment-focused competitors.

 

Overall, the market is evolving into a high-barrier, innovation-intensive ecosystem where leadership depends on technological depth, ecosystem integration, and the ability to support next-generation semiconductor scaling challenges.

 

Regional Landscape And Adoption Outlook

The adoption of Semiconductor Process Control Equipment varies sharply across regions, primarily shaped by semiconductor manufacturing concentration, capital investment intensity, technology node leadership, and government-backed chip fabrication strategies. Between 2026 and 2032, regional competition is expected to intensify as countries prioritize semiconductor self-sufficiency and advanced node manufacturing capabilities.

North America

• Strong presence of leading semiconductor R&D and equipment innovation hubs

• High adoption of AI-driven process control and advanced metrology systems

• Major players and fabs focused on design-heavy and high-performance computing chips

• Significant investments under national semiconductor incentive programs

• Strong demand for EUV-compatible inspection and yield optimization tools

• Key focus: reshoring advanced semiconductor manufacturing and strengthening supply chain resilience

North America is less volume-driven but highly innovation-intensive, making it a critical region for next-generation process control technologies.

 

Europe

• Strong dominance in automotive, industrial, and power semiconductor applications

• Increasing investments in domestic semiconductor fabrication initiatives

• Focus on mature nodes (28nm–7nm) with selective movement toward advanced nodes

• Germany, France, and the Netherlands are key semiconductor ecosystems

• High emphasis on quality control, reliability, and energy-efficient chip production

• Growing collaboration between governments and equipment manufacturers

Europe’s demand is more stability-oriented, with process control focused on reliability and long lifecycle performance rather than extreme scaling.

 

Asia Pacific (Dominant Region)

• Holds the largest market share (estimated ~60%+ in 2025 )

• Semiconductor manufacturing hubs include Taiwan, South Korea, China, and Japan

• Home to leading foundries and memory manufacturers

• Massive investments in sub-5nm and advanced packaging technologies

• Rapid expansion of new fabs supported by government subsidies and national strategies

• Strong adoption of advanced inspection, e-beam metrology, and AI-based yield systems

 

Key country insights :

• Taiwan: Global leader in advanced node fabrication and process control adoption

• South Korea: Strong memory chip ecosystem driving inspection demand

• China: Rapid domestic semiconductor expansion and equipment localization efforts

• Japan: Advanced materials and precision equipment leadership

Asia Pacific is the core volume and technology driver of the global market.

 

Latin America

• Emerging semiconductor ecosystem with limited fabrication presence

• Focus primarily on electronics assembly and testing rather than wafer fabrication

• Increasing demand for imported semiconductor components

• Adoption of process control equipment is indirect and limited to packaging/testing facilities

• Brazil and Mexico are the key regional contributors

Growth is modest but long-term opportunity exists through electronics manufacturing expansion.

 

Middle East & Africa (MEA)

• Early-stage semiconductor ecosystem with strategic investment initiatives

• Countries like the UAE and Saudi Arabia exploring advanced technology manufacturing hubs

• Limited current fabrication capability but strong government-led diversification plans

• Growing interest in partnerships with global semiconductor equipment vendors

• Focus on building research centers and advanced technology clusters

MEA is an emerging strategic region rather than a current demand center .

 

Regional Summary Insights

• Asia Pacific dominates both volume and advanced node adoption

• North America leads in innovation, AI integration, and equipment R&D

• Europe focuses on reliability-driven and automotive semiconductor applications

• Emerging regions (Latin America, MEA) represent long-term expansion opportunities rather than immediate demand drivers

Overall, regional dynamics in the semiconductor process control equipment market reflect a clear divide : Asia Pacific drives manufacturing scale, North America drives innovation, and Europe drives application stability.

 

End-User Dynamics And Use Case

The demand for Semiconductor Process Control Equipment is directly shaped by the operational intensity, technology node requirements, and yield sensitivity of different end users. Unlike many industrial markets, purchasing decisions here are heavily driven by technical necessity rather than discretionary investment. Every major end-user group is under pressure to improve yield, reduce defect rates, and maintain consistency at increasingly advanced process nodes.

Foundries

• Largest and most influential end-user segment

• Operate high-volume, cutting-edge semiconductor manufacturing lines

• Strong reliance on real-time inspection and inline metrology systems

• Aggressive adoption of AI-driven process control for yield optimization

• Continuous investment in sub-5nm and EUV-compatible inspection tools

• High sensitivity to even minor defect variations due to scale of production

Foundries treat process control as a core revenue protection mechanism rather than a supporting function.

 

Integrated Device Manufacturers (IDMs)

• Combine design, fabrication, and product ownership within a single ecosystem

• Invest heavily in in-house process control capabilities

• Strong focus on memory, logic, and mixed-signal chip production

• Use advanced metrology to balance performance, cost, and yield efficiency

• Gradual transition toward AI-enabled process optimization systems

IDMs prioritize long-term stability and manufacturing control over pure throughput scaling.

 

Outsourced Semiconductor Assembly and Test (OSAT) Providers

• Focus on back-end packaging, assembly, and testing processes

• Growing importance due to chiplet -based and 3D IC architectures

• Increasing demand for defect detection in advanced packaging layers

• Adoption of optical inspection and advanced packaging metrology tools

• Cost-sensitive but increasingly technology-driven segment

OSAT providers are becoming more critical as packaging complexity begins to rival wafer fabrication complexity.

 

Research Institutes and Pilot Fabs

• Focus on advanced node experimentation and next-generation semiconductor development

• Use high-precision metrology tools for material and process validation

• Limited production scale but high-value contribution to innovation ecosystem

• Serve as testing grounds for emerging process control technologies

 

Use Case Example

A leading advanced semiconductor foundry in Taiwan operating at sub-5nm node production integrated an AI-enabled wafer inspection and metrology system across its EUV lithography line. The objective was to reduce defect escape rates and improve yield consistency in high-density logic chips used for AI and HPC applications.

Prior to implementation, the facility faced challenges with:

• Low defect visibility at nanoscale levels

• High variability in lithography alignment accuracy

• Delayed detection of process drift across production batches

After deploying inline inspection combined with AI-based defect classification:

• Defect detection accuracy improved significantly at sub-5nm nodes

• Process drift was identified earlier in the fabrication cycle

• Yield variability across production lots was reduced

• Tool-to-tool calibration time decreased due to automated feedback loops

The key impact was not just improved defect detection, but the ability to proactively adjust process parameters in real time, effectively shifting the fab toward closed-loop manufacturing.

This use case reflects a broader industry trend where process control equipment is no longer used solely for quality assurance, but as an active driver of yield optimization and production intelligence.

 

End-User Outlook Summary

• Foundries remain the dominant demand center, driving advanced technology adoption

• IDMs focus on controlled, integrated manufacturing ecosystems

• OSAT providers are rapidly upgrading due to packaging complexity growth

• Research institutes play a critical role in enabling next-generation innovation

Overall, end-user behavior is converging toward one common priority: maximizing yield efficiency while minimizing process variability in increasingly complex semiconductor architectures.

 

Recent Developments + Opportunities & Restraints

Recent Developments (Last 2 Years)

• KLA Corporation expanded its next-generation wafer inspection platform with enhanced AI-based defect classification capabilities for sub-5nm nodes.

• Applied Materials introduced upgraded process control integration modules designed to improve real-time deposition and etch monitoring accuracy.

• Hitachi High-Tech advanced its electron beam inspection systems with improved throughput architecture for high-density logic chips.

• Onto Innovation strengthened its advanced packaging inspection portfolio to support growing demand from chiplet and 3D IC manufacturing.

• ASML deepened ecosystem collaboration with process control vendors to improve EUV lithography alignment precision and stability.

 

Opportunities

• Expansion of sub-5nm and beyond-node manufacturing is creating strong demand for ultra-high precision inspection and metrology systems.

• Rising adoption of AI-driven process control platforms is enabling predictive yield optimization across semiconductor fabs.

• Growth of advanced packaging and chiplet architectures is opening new application areas for defect detection and alignment systems.

• Increasing semiconductor localization initiatives across the U.S., Europe, and Asia are driving new fab construction and equipment demand.

 

Restraints

• Extremely high capital investment requirements for advanced inspection and metrology systems limit adoption among smaller fabs.

• Technical complexity in integrating AI-based process control systems with legacy fabrication infrastructure slows deployment cycles.

 

7.1. Report Coverage Table

Report Attribute	Details
Forecast Period	2026 – 2032
Market Size Value in 2025	USD 12.6 Billion
Revenue Forecast in 2032	USD 22.1 Billion.
Overall Growth Rate	CAGR of 8.4% (2026 – 2032)
Base Year for Estimation	2025
Historical Data	2019 – 2024
Unit	USD Billion, CAGR (2026 – 2032)
Segmentation	By Equipment Type, By Technology Node, By Application, By End User, By Region
By Equipment Type	Metrology Equipment, Inspection Equipment, Process Control Software & Analytics, Defect Review Systems
By Technology Node	≤5nm Node, 7nm–14nm Node, ≥16nm Node
By Application	Front-End Manufacturing, Back-End Manufacturing, R&D and Process Development
By End User	Foundries, Integrated Device Manufacturers, OSAT Providers, Research Institutes
By Region	North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, Latin America, Middle East & Africa
Country Scope	U.S., China, Japan, South Korea, Germany, Taiwan, Netherlands, Brazil, UAE, etc
Market Drivers	Rising complexity of advanced nodes, increasing AI integration in fabs, growing demand for yield optimization solutions.
Customization Option	Available upon request.